Revelation 18 Study Notes
General
According to Revelation 18:24, what is found within Babylon that explains the severity of her judgment?
Answer: Guilt for the shed blood of God's prophets and holy people, along with every other murder victim on earth, is traced back to her
The chapter's final verse names the ultimate reason behind everything described up to this point: responsibility for the shed blood of prophets, saints, and indeed of everyone who had ever been murdered on earth, traces back to her (18:24). This closing statement gathers together the various threads already introduced earlier in the chapter, the vast trade, the luxury, the deception, and the earlier vision's own description of her being drunk with the blood of the saints, into a single, sobering conclusion. Whatever else made Babylon prosperous and admired, it is this accumulated guilt for the shedding of innocent, faithful blood that finally accounts for the completeness of her downfall.
- Revelation 18:24 (BSB)“And there was found in her the blood of prophets and saints, and of all who had been slain on the earth.”Names the shed blood of God's people as the ultimate ground for Babylon's judgment.
- Matthew 23:34-35 (BSB)“Because of this, I am sending you prophets and wise men and teachers. Some of them you will kill and crucify, and others you will flog in your synagogues and persecute from town to town. And so upon you will come all the righteous blood shed on earth, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah son of Berechiah, whom you murdered between the temple and the altar.”Jesus traces this same accumulated guilt for shed righteous blood across the entire span of biblical history.
- Genesis 4:10 (BSB)““What have you done?” replied the LORD. “The voice of your brother’s blood cries out to Me from the ground.”The very first instance in Scripture of shed blood crying out for justice, the pattern this final judgment ultimately answers.
Theological
Revelation 18:24 traces Babylon's judgment back to the blood of "all who had been slain on the earth," language echoing both Genesis 4:10's account of Abel's blood and Jesus's own statement in Matthew 23:34-35. How does this final verse tie Babylon's specific downfall to the broadest possible pattern of biblical justice?
Answer: It presents Babylon's judgment as the climactic instance of God's consistent justice against the shedding of innocent, faithful blood throughout the entire span of human history, beginning with Abel
This closing verse deliberately reaches back to the broadest possible scope, the blood of everyone ever slain on the earth, tying Babylon's specific downfall to the entire sweep of biblical history rather than to one isolated grievance (18:24). Genesis 4:10 records the very first instance of this pattern, Abel's blood crying out from the ground for justice, and Jesus's own statement traces an unbroken line of accumulated guilt for shed righteous blood from that first murder all the way to His own generation. Read together with this final verse in Revelation, these texts present Babylon's judgment as the climactic, final answer to a pattern of injustice against God's faithful people running through the whole of human history, confirming that God's justice does not overlook or forget even the earliest instances of innocent blood shed in defiance of Him.
- Revelation 18:24 (BSB)“And there was found in her the blood of prophets and saints, and of all who had been slain on the earth.”Names the shed blood of God's people as the ultimate ground for Babylon's judgment.
- Matthew 23:34-35 (BSB)“Because of this, I am sending you prophets and wise men and teachers. Some of them you will kill and crucify, and others you will flog in your synagogues and persecute from town to town. And so upon you will come all the righteous blood shed on earth, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah son of Berechiah, whom you murdered between the temple and the altar.”Jesus traces this same accumulated guilt for shed righteous blood across the entire span of biblical history.
- Genesis 4:10 (BSB)““What have you done?” replied the LORD. “The voice of your brother’s blood cries out to Me from the ground.”The very first instance in Scripture of shed blood crying out for justice, the pattern this final judgment ultimately answers.
General
According to Revelation 18:4-5, what does the voice from heaven urge God's people to do, and why?
Answer: To leave Babylon behind entirely, avoiding any part in her wrongdoing or her coming plagues, since her guilt has stacked up sky-high and God has taken full account of her crimes
A voice from heaven now issues an urgent call to God's people: leave her behind, so that they will avoid any part in her wrongdoing or in the plagues about to fall on her (18:4). The reasoning given is direct: her guilt has stacked up sky-high, and God has taken full account of every wrong she has committed (18:5). This call assumes that remaining entangled with a corrupt system carries real spiritual risk, and it treats separation, not compromise or reform from within, as the fitting response for God's people once judgment is at hand.
- Revelation 18:4-5 (BSB)“Then I heard another voice from heaven say: “Come out of her, My people, so that you will not share in her sins or contract any of her plagues. For her sins are piled up to heaven, and God has remembered her iniquities.”The call for God's people to separate from Babylon before her judgment falls.
- Jeremiah 51:45 (BSB)“Come out of her, My people! Save your lives, each of you, from the fierce anger of the LORD.”An earlier prophecy giving God's people the identical instruction regarding the historical Babylon.
- 2 Corinthians 6:17 (BSB)““Therefore come out from among them and be separate, says the Lord. Touch no unclean thing, and I will receive you.””Applies this same principle of separation from corruption directly to New Testament believers.
Theological
Revelation 18:4's call to "come out of her, My people" directly echoes Jeremiah 51:45's identical instruction regarding historical Babylon. What enduring principle does this repeated call establish for God's people, regardless of one's view of Babylon's precise identity in Revelation?
Answer: That God's people are called to genuine separation from systems built on the sins that draw down His judgment, whenever and wherever such systems are found
The call in Revelation 18:4 deliberately reuses language already given centuries earlier regarding the historical Babylon (compare Jeremiah 51:45), and Paul applies this same principle of separation directly to New Testament believers in 2 Corinthians 6:17. Read together, these texts establish an enduring principle that does not depend on settling every disputed detail about Babylon's specific identity in Revelation: God's people are consistently called to genuine separation from systems and practices built on the kind of sin that draws down His judgment, rather than comfortable participation in them. This call is about moral and spiritual distinctiveness, refusing to share in besetting sin, not merely a one-time historical instruction to leave a particular city at a particular moment.
- Revelation 18:4-5 (BSB)“Then I heard another voice from heaven say: “Come out of her, My people, so that you will not share in her sins or contract any of her plagues. For her sins are piled up to heaven, and God has remembered her iniquities.”The call for God's people to separate from Babylon before her judgment falls.
- Jeremiah 51:45 (BSB)“Come out of her, My people! Save your lives, each of you, from the fierce anger of the LORD.”An earlier prophecy giving God's people the identical instruction regarding the historical Babylon.
- 2 Corinthians 6:17 (BSB)““Therefore come out from among them and be separate, says the Lord. Touch no unclean thing, and I will receive you.””Applies this same principle of separation from corruption directly to New Testament believers.
General
According to Revelation 18:14, what do the merchants say has departed from Babylon, and what condition is described as permanent?
Answer: Everything her heart once craved is gone from her for good, and every trace of her wealth and grandeur has permanently disappeared
A brief lament captures the totality of Babylon's loss: the very things her soul had craved have departed from her entirely, and every trace of her luxury and splendor is gone, described as permanently unrecoverable (18:14). This short verse functions as a kind of summary epitaph in the middle of the merchants' longer lament, distilling the larger point of the surrounding verses into a single, stark statement about the emptiness left behind once everything she had pursued is finally, irretrievably gone.
- Revelation 18:14 (BSB)“And they will say: “The fruit of your soul’s desire has departed from you; all your luxury and splendor have vanished, never to be seen again.””Summarizes Babylon's total, permanent loss of everything she had pursued and desired.
- Luke 12:19-20 (BSB)“Then I will say to myself, “You have plenty of good things laid up for many years. Take it easy. Eat, drink, and be merry!”’ But God said to him, ‘You fool! This very night your life will be required of you. Then who will own what you have accumulated?’”Depicts the same sudden, total loss of accumulated wealth at the very moment it seemed most secure.
- 1 John 2:17 (BSB)“The world is passing away, along with its desires; but whoever does the will of God remains forever.”States the same principle directly: the world's desirable things are inherently passing, unlike obedience to God's will.
Theological
Revelation 18:14 declares that everything Babylon's soul desired has permanently departed. How does this verse, together with 1 John 2:17's statement that "the world is passing away, along with its desires," instruct believers regarding where lasting security should be sought?
Answer: It teaches that anything pursued for its own sake apart from God is inherently temporary, and lasting security is found only in what endures beyond this passing world
This brief lament states plainly what the entire scene has been illustrating in detail: everything Babylon's soul desired, however impressive or secure it once seemed, has permanently and totally departed (18:14). John's own later statement makes the underlying principle explicit: the world and its desires are passing away by nature, while only obedience to God's will remains forever (1 John 2:17). Jesus's own parable of the rich fool illustrates the identical lesson from a personal, individual angle rather than a national one, wealth laid up for the future proving worthless the very night it is called for. Read together, these texts direct believers away from placing ultimate security in anything this present world offers, however genuinely good or valuable it may temporarily appear, and toward the only foundation Scripture describes as truly lasting.
- Revelation 18:14 (BSB)“And they will say: “The fruit of your soul’s desire has departed from you; all your luxury and splendor have vanished, never to be seen again.””Summarizes Babylon's total, permanent loss of everything she had pursued and desired.
- Luke 12:19-20 (BSB)“Then I will say to myself, “You have plenty of good things laid up for many years. Take it easy. Eat, drink, and be merry!”’ But God said to him, ‘You fool! This very night your life will be required of you. Then who will own what you have accumulated?’”Depicts the same sudden, total loss of accumulated wealth at the very moment it seemed most secure.
- 1 John 2:17 (BSB)“The world is passing away, along with its desires; but whoever does the will of God remains forever.”States the same principle directly: the world's desirable things are inherently passing, unlike obedience to God's will.
General
According to Revelation 18:8, how quickly will Babylon's plagues arrive, what do they include, and why is she said to be consumed by fire?
Answer: Her plagues arrive within a single day, death, mourning, and starvation among them, and fire finally consumes her, because the God who judges her wields mighty power
The judgment on Babylon is described as coming with sudden, overwhelming speed: her plagues, death, mourning, and starvation among them, arrive within a single day, and fire finally consumes her (18:8a). The reason given for the severity and certainty of this judgment is simple: the God who judges her wields mighty, unmatched power (18:8b). The suddenness of her downfall stands in pointed contrast to the boast of lasting, unshakeable security just described in the previous verse.
- Revelation 18:8 (BSB)“Therefore her plagues will come in one day—death and grief and famine—and she will be consumed by fire, for mighty is the Lord God who judges her.””Describes the sudden arrival of Babylon's plagues and her destruction by fire.
- Genesis 19:24 (BSB)“Then the LORD rained down sulfur and fire on Sodom and Gomorrah—from the LORD out of the heavens.”An earlier judgment by sudden fire, the same pattern of swift, decisive divine judgment applied here to Babylon.
- Jeremiah 50:31-32 (BSB)““Behold, I am against you, O arrogant one,” declares the Lord GOD of Hosts, “for your day has come, the time when I will punish you. The arrogant one will stumble and fall with no one to pick him up. And I will kindle a fire in his cities to consume all those around him.””An earlier oracle against historical Babylon's own arrogance, likewise ending in judgment by fire.
Theological
Revelation 18:8 grounds the certainty of Babylon's sudden judgment in a single reason: "mighty is the Lord God who judges her." How does this brief statement summarize the Reformed emphasis running through this entire chapter's portrayal of judgment?
Answer: It grounds the certainty and completeness of this judgment directly in God's own sovereign power, not in any independent strength or weakness on Babylon's part
The explanation given for why this judgment arrives so suddenly and completely is remarkably simple: the God bringing this verdict against her wields mighty power (18:8). This brief statement carries the weight of everything else this chapter goes on to describe. Babylon's downfall does not hinge on any weakness in her own defenses or any external rival power outmatching her; it rests entirely on God's own sovereign might. Genesis 19:24's account of sudden judgment by fire on Sodom and Gomorrah, and Jeremiah's earlier oracle against Babylon's own arrogance ending in fire, both confirm this same pattern: whenever Scripture describes God executing judgment on proud, corrupting power, the outcome is never presented as uncertain or contested, because it rests on His own settled, sovereign strength rather than on any balance of competing forces.
- Revelation 18:8 (BSB)“Therefore her plagues will come in one day—death and grief and famine—and she will be consumed by fire, for mighty is the Lord God who judges her.””Describes the sudden arrival of Babylon's plagues and her destruction by fire.
- Genesis 19:24 (BSB)“Then the LORD rained down sulfur and fire on Sodom and Gomorrah—from the LORD out of the heavens.”An earlier judgment by sudden fire, the same pattern of swift, decisive divine judgment applied here to Babylon.
- Jeremiah 50:31-32 (BSB)““Behold, I am against you, O arrogant one,” declares the Lord GOD of Hosts, “for your day has come, the time when I will punish you. The arrogant one will stumble and fall with no one to pick him up. And I will kindle a fire in his cities to consume all those around him.””An earlier oracle against historical Babylon's own arrogance, likewise ending in judgment by fire.
General
Revelation 18:9-10 describes the kings of the earth crying out, "Woe, woe to the great city." What do these kings do, and from what distance do they watch Babylon's destruction?
Answer: They sob and cry out upon seeing Babylon's rising smoke, keeping their distance out of dread of sharing her torment
The kings who had once been immoral with Babylon and shared in her luxury now respond to her sudden fall with sobbing and cries of grief upon seeing the smoke rise from her burning (18:9). Their fear of sharing in her torment keeps them at a distance rather than drawing them near to help; from that safe remove, they cry out their lament over the great city's judgment, astonished that so much had collapsed in so short a time (18:10). Their grief is real, but it is entirely self-interested, mourning the loss of a source of pleasure and status rather than repenting of any part they themselves had played in her corruption.
- Revelation 18:9-10 (BSB)“Then the kings of the earth who committed sexual immorality and lived in luxury with her will weep and wail at the sight of the smoke rising from the fire that consumes her. In fear of her torment, they will stand at a distance and cry out: “Woe, woe to the great city, the mighty city of Babylon! For in a single hour your judgment has come.””Describes the kings weeping over Babylon's destruction while standing at a fearful distance.
- Ezekiel 26:16-17 (BSB)“All the princes of the sea will descend from their thrones, remove their robes, and strip off their embroidered garments. Clothed with terror, they will sit on the ground, trembling every moment, appalled over you. Then they will lament for you, saying, “How you have perished, O city of renown inhabited by seafaring men—she who was powerful on the sea, along with her people, who imposed terror on all peoples!”An earlier lament by rulers over another fallen trading city, following the identical pattern of shock and mourning from a distance.
- Ezekiel 27:35 (BSB)“All the people of the coastlands are appalled over you. Their kings shudder with fear; their faces are contorted.”Records kings and coastal peoples reacting with the same fearful astonishment over a great trading city's collapse.
Theological
The kings' lament in Revelation 18:9-10 expresses grief over Babylon's fall, yet none of them are shown expressing any repentance for their own complicity in her sins. What does the absence of repentance in their reaction reveal about the nature of their grief?
Answer: Their grief is self-interested sorrow over lost pleasure and status, not genuine repentance over their own moral participation in the sins being judged
What stands out in the kings' lament is what it does not include: at no point do they express sorrow for their own moral involvement in Babylon's corruption, only distress at losing what she had provided them (18:9-10). This distinguishes their grief sharply from genuine repentance, which would involve acknowledging wrongdoing rather than merely mourning its consequences. Ezekiel's earlier laments over other fallen trading cities follow this identical pattern, rulers and coastal peoples reacting with shock and fear rather than any admission of their own complicity in what those cities represented. Read together, these passages illustrate a recurring biblical distinction between worldly sorrow over lost benefit and the kind of genuine repentance that turns from sin itself, not merely from its costly consequences.
- Revelation 18:9-10 (BSB)“Then the kings of the earth who committed sexual immorality and lived in luxury with her will weep and wail at the sight of the smoke rising from the fire that consumes her. In fear of her torment, they will stand at a distance and cry out: “Woe, woe to the great city, the mighty city of Babylon! For in a single hour your judgment has come.””Describes the kings weeping over Babylon's destruction while standing at a fearful distance.
- Ezekiel 26:16-17 (BSB)“All the princes of the sea will descend from their thrones, remove their robes, and strip off their embroidered garments. Clothed with terror, they will sit on the ground, trembling every moment, appalled over you. Then they will lament for you, saying, “How you have perished, O city of renown inhabited by seafaring men—she who was powerful on the sea, along with her people, who imposed terror on all peoples!”An earlier lament by rulers over another fallen trading city, following the identical pattern of shock and mourning from a distance.
- Ezekiel 27:35 (BSB)“All the people of the coastlands are appalled over you. Their kings shudder with fear; their faces are contorted.”Records kings and coastal peoples reacting with the same fearful astonishment over a great trading city's collapse.
General
According to Revelation 18:23, why does the text say all the nations were deceived, and what were Babylon's merchants called?
Answer: Her traders ranked among the world's most powerful men, and every nation had been led astray by her witchcraft
The passage closes its description of Babylon's ruin with a final explanatory note about why her fall carried such wide-reaching consequences: her merchants had risen to rank among the world's most prominent men, figures of significant status and influence, and her deceptive witchcraft had led every nation astray (18:23b). This detail helps explain the scale of grief already described from kings, merchants, and sailors alike; Babylon's reach had extended into global economic and religious life through influence that combined genuine prestige with genuine deception.
- Revelation 18:23 (BSB)“For your merchants were the great ones of the earth, because all the nations were deceived by your sorcery.””Explains Babylon's global reach through both the prominence of her merchants and her deceptive sorcery.
- Isaiah 47:9 (BSB)“These two things will overtake you in a moment, in a single day: loss of children, and widowhood. They will come upon you in full measure, in spite of your many sorceries and the potency of your spells.”Names the historical Babylon's own reliance on sorcery and spells as part of what drew her judgment.
- Revelation 13:14 (BSB)“Because of the signs it was given to perform on behalf of the first beast, it deceived those who dwell on the earth, telling them to make an image to the beast that had been wounded by the sword and yet had lived.”Describes a related figure earlier in Revelation using deceptive signs to mislead the earth's inhabitants, the same basic pattern of deception at work here.
Theological
Revelation 18:23 ties Babylon's global influence to two specific factors: the elevated status of her merchants and deception through sorcery. What does pairing genuine prestige with deception, rather than crude force alone, suggest about how this corrupting influence actually operated?
Answer: It suggests this influence succeeded largely through attractive prestige and persuasive deception rather than open, obvious coercion, making it especially dangerous and widely embraced
The specific combination named here, genuinely elevated social status paired with deceptive sorcery, is significant (18:23). This was not a power that spread primarily through obvious coercion, but one that succeeded through what looked prestigious and desirable on the surface while operating through real deception underneath, a combination that made it especially effective at drawing the nations in willingly. Isaiah's earlier description of historical Babylon's own reliance on sorcery and spells confirms this specific method as a recognizable feature of this kind of corrupting power throughout Scripture, and Revelation 13:14's description of deceptive signs performed on behalf of the beast shows this same basic pattern, attractive deception rather than open force, running consistently throughout Revelation's portrayal of organized opposition to God.
- Revelation 18:23 (BSB)“For your merchants were the great ones of the earth, because all the nations were deceived by your sorcery.””Explains Babylon's global reach through both the prominence of her merchants and her deceptive sorcery.
- Isaiah 47:9 (BSB)“These two things will overtake you in a moment, in a single day: loss of children, and widowhood. They will come upon you in full measure, in spite of your many sorceries and the potency of your spells.”Names the historical Babylon's own reliance on sorcery and spells as part of what drew her judgment.
- Revelation 13:14 (BSB)“Because of the signs it was given to perform on behalf of the first beast, it deceived those who dwell on the earth, telling them to make an image to the beast that had been wounded by the sword and yet had lived.”Describes a related figure earlier in Revelation using deceptive signs to mislead the earth's inhabitants, the same basic pattern of deception at work here.
General
According to Revelation 18:15-17, how do the merchants who profited from Babylon react to her destruction, and what specific loss do they lament?
Answer: They keep their distance, dreading her torment, and weep that such immense riches were wiped out within a single hour
The merchants who had grown rich from selling to Babylon respond much like the kings did earlier: they keep their distance, afraid of sharing in her torment, while weeping and mourning over what has happened (18:15). Their specific lament centers on the sheer scale and speed of the loss: this much fabulous wealth, accumulated over time, destroyed within a single hour (18:16-17a). Once again, their sorrow is entirely bound up with the collapse of their own source of profit rather than any acknowledgment of the moral cost behind the trade that had enriched them.
- Revelation 18:15-17 (BSB)“The merchants who sold these things and gained their wealth from her will stand at a distance, in fear of her torment. They will weep and mourn, saying: “Woe, woe to the great city, clothed in fine linen and purple and scarlet, adorned with gold and precious stones and pearls! For in a single hour such fabulous wealth has been destroyed!””Describes the merchants' distant, fearful grief over the sudden destruction of Babylon's wealth.
- Ezekiel 27:33-34 (BSB)“When your wares went out to sea, you satisfied many nations. You enriched the kings of the earth with your abundant wealth and merchandise. Now you are shattered by the seas in the depths of the waters; your merchandise and the people among you have gone down with you.”Describes the identical pattern of a wealth-generating trading city suddenly and completely destroyed.
- Proverbs 11:4 (BSB)“Riches are worthless in the day of wrath, but righteousness brings deliverance from death.”States plainly the very lesson this scene illustrates: wealth offers no real protection when judgment finally arrives.
Theological
Proverbs 11:4 states that "riches are worthless in the day of wrath," a principle vividly illustrated by the merchants' lament in Revelation 18:15-17 over wealth destroyed in a single hour. What does this pairing teach about the true value of accumulated wealth?
Answer: That accumulated wealth, however impressive, provides no genuine security or deliverance in the face of God's judgment, unlike righteousness
The merchants' grief over wealth destroyed within a single hour provides a vivid, concrete illustration of a principle already stated plainly elsewhere in Scripture: riches carry no real weight on the day of judgment, while righteousness alone offers genuine deliverance (18:15-17; compare Proverbs 11:4). Ezekiel's earlier description of another great trading city, suddenly and completely destroyed despite having enriched kings and nations for years, confirms this is a consistent biblical pattern rather than an isolated case. Read together, these texts direct attention away from wealth's apparent security toward the only security Scripture presents as genuinely reliable when judgment finally comes, righteousness rooted in a right relationship with God rather than riches accumulated through worldly gain.
- Revelation 18:15-17 (BSB)“The merchants who sold these things and gained their wealth from her will stand at a distance, in fear of her torment. They will weep and mourn, saying: “Woe, woe to the great city, clothed in fine linen and purple and scarlet, adorned with gold and precious stones and pearls! For in a single hour such fabulous wealth has been destroyed!””Describes the merchants' distant, fearful grief over the sudden destruction of Babylon's wealth.
- Ezekiel 27:33-34 (BSB)“When your wares went out to sea, you satisfied many nations. You enriched the kings of the earth with your abundant wealth and merchandise. Now you are shattered by the seas in the depths of the waters; your merchandise and the people among you have gone down with you.”Describes the identical pattern of a wealth-generating trading city suddenly and completely destroyed.
- Proverbs 11:4 (BSB)“Riches are worthless in the day of wrath, but righteousness brings deliverance from death.”States plainly the very lesson this scene illustrates: wealth offers no real protection when judgment finally arrives.
General
According to Revelation 18:11-13, why do the merchants of the earth weep and mourn over Babylon, and what kind of goods made up her trade?
Answer: They mourn because no one buys their cargo any longer, a trade that had included precious metals and jewels, fine fabrics, exotic woods and building materials, spices, food and drink, livestock and transport, and even human beings
Attention now shifts to the merchants of the earth, who weep and mourn for a very specific, practical reason: no one is left to purchase the cargo they once sold to Babylon (18:11). John supplies an extensive catalog of exactly what that trade had included, precious metals and gemstones, luxurious fabrics and dyes, exotic woods and fine building materials, aromatic spices and incense, food staples and drink, livestock and means of transport, and, in the most damning item on the entire list, human beings themselves, bought and sold as property (18:12-13). The sheer range of this trade underscores just how deeply Babylon's economy had been built on excess, luxury, and, ultimately, the exploitation of human life itself.
- Revelation 18:11-13 (BSB)“And the merchants of the earth will weep and mourn over her, because there is no one left to buy their cargo— cargo of gold, silver, precious stones, and pearls; of fine linen, purple, silk, and scarlet; of all kinds of citron wood and every article of ivory, precious wood, bronze, iron, and marble; of cinnamon, spice, incense, myrrh, and frankincense; of wine, olive oil, fine flour, and wheat; of cattle, sheep, horses, and carriages; of bodies and souls of slaves.”Lists the extensive luxury trade that had enriched merchants through their dealings with Babylon.
- Ezekiel 27:12 (BSB)“Tarshish was your merchant because of your great wealth of goods; they exchanged silver, iron, tin, and lead for your wares.”Describes a comparable extensive trading network built around another great ancient city's wealth.
- James 5:1-3 (BSB)“Come now, you who are rich, weep and wail over the misery to come upon you. Your riches have rotted and moths have eaten your clothes. Your gold and silver are corroded. Their corrosion will testify against you and consume your flesh like fire. You have hoarded treasure in the last days.”Warns the wealthy in similar terms about the coming ruin of hoarded, unjustly gained riches.
Theological
Revelation 18:12-13's extensive trade catalog culminates deliberately in its final, most damning item, human beings sold as property, described just after ordinary goods like livestock. What theological point does this placement and progression make about Babylon's economic system?
Answer: It exposes an economic system that ultimately reduces even human beings, made in God's image, to mere commodities within its broader pursuit of luxury and profit
The trade list's progression, moving from precious metals and fine goods through food, livestock, and transport before ending with human beings bought and sold, is a deliberate and damning literary choice (18:12-13). By placing this item last and most emphatically, the text exposes the full moral logic of a system built purely on luxury and profit: once the pursuit of wealth becomes the organizing principle, even human life, made in God's own image, is eventually treated as just one more commodity among many. Ezekiel's earlier catalog of another great trading city's extensive commerce shows this pattern of wealth-driven excess as a recurring feature of proud, self-glorifying civilizations, and James's warning to the wealthy, that hoarded riches testify against their owners rather than securing them, applies the same underlying principle directly to believers tempted by this same love of luxury and gain.
- Revelation 18:11-13 (BSB)“And the merchants of the earth will weep and mourn over her, because there is no one left to buy their cargo— cargo of gold, silver, precious stones, and pearls; of fine linen, purple, silk, and scarlet; of all kinds of citron wood and every article of ivory, precious wood, bronze, iron, and marble; of cinnamon, spice, incense, myrrh, and frankincense; of wine, olive oil, fine flour, and wheat; of cattle, sheep, horses, and carriages; of bodies and souls of slaves.”Lists the extensive luxury trade that had enriched merchants through their dealings with Babylon.
- Ezekiel 27:12 (BSB)“Tarshish was your merchant because of your great wealth of goods; they exchanged silver, iron, tin, and lead for your wares.”Describes a comparable extensive trading network built around another great ancient city's wealth.
- James 5:1-3 (BSB)“Come now, you who are rich, weep and wail over the misery to come upon you. Your riches have rotted and moths have eaten your clothes. Your gold and silver are corroded. Their corrosion will testify against you and consume your flesh like fire. You have hoarded treasure in the last days.”Warns the wealthy in similar terms about the coming ruin of hoarded, unjustly gained riches.
General
According to Revelation 18:1-3, what does the angel descending from heaven announce about Babylon, and what three groups does he say have profited from or been corrupted by her?
Answer: He announces that Babylon has fallen and become a haunt for demons, and that nations, kings, and merchants have all been corrupted by or enriched through her
A different angel now descends from heaven, carrying such great authority that his splendor lights up the earth (18:1). His announcement is immediate and emphatic: Babylon the great has fallen, and what was once a great city has become instead a dwelling for demons and every kind of unclean spirit and creature (18:2). He then names exactly who has been entangled with her: the nations intoxicated by her immorality, the rulers who indulged in sin with her, and the merchants who grew wealthy off her extravagant luxury (18:3). This introduction sets the stage for the extended reaction from each of these groups that fills the rest of the chapter.
- Revelation 18:1-3 (BSB)“After this I saw another angel descending from heaven with great authority, and the earth was illuminated by his glory. And he cried out in a mighty voice: “Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great! She has become a lair for demons and a haunt for every unclean spirit, every unclean bird, and every detestable beast. All the nations have drunk the wine of the passion of her immorality. The kings of the earth were immoral with her, and the merchants of the earth have grown wealthy from the extravagance of her luxury.””The angel's announcement of Babylon's fall and the nations, kings, and merchants entangled with her.
- Isaiah 21:9 (BSB)“Look, here come the riders, horsemen in pairs.” And one answered, saying: “Fallen, fallen is Babylon! All the images of her gods lie shattered on the ground!””An earlier prophetic announcement using this identical double cry over the historical fall of Babylon.
- Isaiah 13:21-22 (BSB)“But desert creatures will lie down there, and howling creatures will fill her houses. Ostriches will dwell there, and wild goats will leap about. Hyenas will howl in her fortresses and jackals in her luxurious palaces. Babylon’s time is at hand, and her days will not be prolonged.”Describes the same picture of a once-great city reduced to a haunt for wild and unclean creatures.
Theological
Revelation 18:1-3's proclamation of Babylon's fall deliberately echoes Isaiah 21:9's ancient double cry over historical Babylon's collapse. What does this deliberate literary echo suggest about how this vision relates to earlier biblical judgment oracles?
Answer: It presents this final judgment as standing in continuity with a consistent, long-standing biblical pattern of God's justice against proud, corrupting powers, rather than an isolated or unprecedented idea
The angel's announcement deliberately reuses the same doubled cry already recorded centuries earlier over the historical fall of Babylon (18:2; compare Isaiah 21:9). This literary echo carries real theological weight without requiring the two events to be treated as historically identical: it presents God's judgment on this corrupting power as the outworking of a consistent, long-standing pattern in His dealings with proud, God-opposing civilizations, rather than an unprecedented or arbitrary new idea introduced only here. Isaiah 13:21-22's picture of a once-glorious city reduced to a haunt for wild and unclean creatures supplies the same imagery John now applies to this final, climactic downfall. Read this way, the specific historical identity of the city or system in view in Revelation 18 remains a separate question from the clear theological point this echo makes: proud, corrupting power that opposes God has always, eventually, met the same fate.
- Revelation 18:1-3 (BSB)“After this I saw another angel descending from heaven with great authority, and the earth was illuminated by his glory. And he cried out in a mighty voice: “Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great! She has become a lair for demons and a haunt for every unclean spirit, every unclean bird, and every detestable beast. All the nations have drunk the wine of the passion of her immorality. The kings of the earth were immoral with her, and the merchants of the earth have grown wealthy from the extravagance of her luxury.””The angel's announcement of Babylon's fall and the nations, kings, and merchants entangled with her.
- Isaiah 21:9 (BSB)“Look, here come the riders, horsemen in pairs.” And one answered, saying: “Fallen, fallen is Babylon! All the images of her gods lie shattered on the ground!””An earlier prophetic announcement using this identical double cry over the historical fall of Babylon.
- Isaiah 13:21-22 (BSB)“But desert creatures will lie down there, and howling creatures will fill her houses. Ostriches will dwell there, and wild goats will leap about. Hyenas will howl in her fortresses and jackals in her luxurious palaces. Babylon’s time is at hand, and her days will not be prolonged.”Describes the same picture of a once-great city reduced to a haunt for wild and unclean creatures.
General
According to Revelation 18:21, what symbolic action does a mighty angel perform, and what does it represent?
Answer: The angel hurls a massive, millstone-sized boulder into the ocean, declaring that Babylon's overthrow will be just as sudden and permanent, gone without a trace
A mighty angel performs one final, dramatic symbolic act: lifting a massive, millstone-sized boulder, he hurls it into the ocean (18:21a). His accompanying words explain the meaning behind the gesture directly: with this same sudden violence, Babylon the great city will be overthrown, gone without a trace forever (18:21b). The stone's disappearance beneath the water becomes a vivid, physical picture of Babylon's own total and irreversible disappearance from history.
- Revelation 18:21 (BSB)“Then a mighty angel picked up a stone the size of a great millstone and cast it into the sea, saying: “With such violence the great city of Babylon will be cast down, never to be seen again.”Describes the angel's symbolic act picturing Babylon's sudden, permanent downfall.
- Jeremiah 51:63-64 (BSB)“When you finish reading this scroll, tie a stone to it and cast it into the Euphrates. Then you are to say, ‘In the same way Babylon will sink and never rise again, because of the disaster I will bring upon her. And her people will grow weary.’” Here end the words of Jeremiah.”An earlier prophet performs an almost identical symbolic act, sinking a stone to picture historical Babylon's permanent downfall.
- Matthew 18:6 (BSB)“But if anyone causes one of these little ones who believe in Me to stumble, it would be better for him to have a large millstone hung around his neck and to be drowned in the depths of the sea.”Uses this same image of a millstone and drowning in the sea for decisive, severe judgment elsewhere in the New Testament.
Theological
The angel's symbolic act of sinking a millstone in Revelation 18:21 closely mirrors Jeremiah's own symbolic act of sinking a stone tied to a scroll into the Euphrates centuries earlier (Jeremiah 51:63-64). What theological point does this deliberate repetition of an earlier prophetic sign-act make?
Answer: It ties this final judgment to a well-established prophetic pattern in which a physical, symbolic act pictures the certainty of a coming, irreversible downfall
The specific form of this angel's action, sinking a stone into water as a picture of permanent downfall, deliberately echoes a sign-act already performed centuries earlier by Jeremiah regarding the historical Babylon (18:21; compare Jeremiah 51:63-64). This repetition connects the final judgment described here to a well-established prophetic pattern: a visible, physical action used to dramatize the certainty of a coming, irreversible judgment. Jesus's own use of the same millstone-and-sea image for severe judgment elsewhere in the Gospels confirms that this specific image carried recognized weight as a picture of decisive, unrecoverable consequence throughout the biblical tradition, reinforcing the same central point this whole vision has been making: whatever Babylon finally and specifically refers to, her downfall is pictured here as total, sudden, and beyond any possibility of reversal.
- Revelation 18:21 (BSB)“Then a mighty angel picked up a stone the size of a great millstone and cast it into the sea, saying: “With such violence the great city of Babylon will be cast down, never to be seen again.”Describes the angel's symbolic act picturing Babylon's sudden, permanent downfall.
- Jeremiah 51:63-64 (BSB)“When you finish reading this scroll, tie a stone to it and cast it into the Euphrates. Then you are to say, ‘In the same way Babylon will sink and never rise again, because of the disaster I will bring upon her. And her people will grow weary.’” Here end the words of Jeremiah.”An earlier prophet performs an almost identical symbolic act, sinking a stone to picture historical Babylon's permanent downfall.
- Matthew 18:6 (BSB)“But if anyone causes one of these little ones who believe in Me to stumble, it would be better for him to have a large millstone hung around his neck and to be drowned in the depths of the sea.”Uses this same image of a millstone and drowning in the sea for decisive, severe judgment elsewhere in the New Testament.
General
According to Revelation 18:22-23, what ordinary sounds of daily life will never be heard in Babylon again?
Answer: Music, working craftsmen, grinding mills, burning household lamps, and newlywed couples celebrating will all vanish from her permanently
The judgment on Babylon is described through a series of ordinary, everyday sounds and sights, each one declared permanently silenced: musicians of every kind will no longer be heard, no craftsman practicing any trade will ever be found there again, the grinding of household mills will fall quiet, household lamps will no longer glow, and even the celebratory calls of newlyweds will never again ring out within her (18:22-23a). Taken together, this list paints a picture not merely of destruction but of the complete cessation of ordinary human life and community, the everyday rhythms that once filled a thriving city entirely gone.
- Revelation 18:22-23 (BSB)“And the sound of harpists and musicians, of flute players and trumpeters, will never ring out in you again. Nor will any craftsmen of any trade be found in you again, nor the sound of a millstone be heard in you again. The light of a lamp will never shine in you again, and the voices of a bride and bridegroom will never call out in you again.”Describes the complete, permanent silencing of ordinary daily life within Babylon.
- Jeremiah 25:10 (BSB)“Moreover, I will banish from them the sounds of joy and gladness, the voices of the bride and bridegroom, the sound of the millstones, and the light of the lamp.”An earlier prophecy using this identical list of everyday sounds and sights to describe a coming judgment of total silence.
- Ezekiel 26:13 (BSB)“So I will silence the sound of your songs, and the music of your lyres will no longer be heard.”Describes the same kind of silencing of music as part of judgment on another great ancient city.
Theological
Revelation 18:22-23's list of silenced everyday sounds closely echoes Jeremiah 25:10's earlier prophecy against historical Babylon, using nearly the identical set of images: millstones, lamps, and the voices of bride and bridegroom. What does drawing on this earlier prophecy suggest about how this judgment should be understood?
Answer: It presents total silence, the complete absence of ordinary human community and joy, as Scripture's consistent way of picturing the depth of a civilization's final judgment
The strikingly close match between this list of silenced sounds and Jeremiah's own earlier prophecy against historical Babylon is deliberate, not incidental (18:22-23; compare Jeremiah 25:10). By reusing this same set of images, ordinary music, useful craft, productive labor, domestic light, and the joyful sounds of marriage, the text presents total silence as Scripture's own consistent way of picturing judgment reaching its deepest possible point: not merely the loss of wealth or power already described earlier in the chapter, but the complete disappearance of ordinary human community and joy. Ezekiel's comparable prophecy of silenced music against another great city confirms this is a recognized, recurring pattern rather than an image unique to this one vision, underscoring just how total and final this judgment is meant to be understood.
- Revelation 18:22-23 (BSB)“And the sound of harpists and musicians, of flute players and trumpeters, will never ring out in you again. Nor will any craftsmen of any trade be found in you again, nor the sound of a millstone be heard in you again. The light of a lamp will never shine in you again, and the voices of a bride and bridegroom will never call out in you again.”Describes the complete, permanent silencing of ordinary daily life within Babylon.
- Jeremiah 25:10 (BSB)“Moreover, I will banish from them the sounds of joy and gladness, the voices of the bride and bridegroom, the sound of the millstones, and the light of the lamp.”An earlier prophecy using this identical list of everyday sounds and sights to describe a coming judgment of total silence.
- Ezekiel 26:13 (BSB)“So I will silence the sound of your songs, and the music of your lyres will no longer be heard.”Describes the same kind of silencing of music as part of judgment on another great ancient city.
General
According to Revelation 18:6-7, what does the voice call for regarding how Babylon should be repaid, and what boast of hers does this repayment answer?
Answer: A doubled repayment mirroring her own crimes, answering her boast that she sits secure as a queen who will never know grief
The voice calls for a repayment that fits Babylon's own actions precisely: return to her exactly what she dealt out to others, doubled, poured into the very cup she herself had mixed (18:6). This measured repayment directly answers her own self-confident boast: in her heart she claims to sit securely as a queen, certain she will never experience the grief of loss (18:7). The judgment described is framed as an exact reversal of this false security, matching her self-glorification and luxury with an equal measure of torment and grief.
- Revelation 18:6-7 (BSB)“Give back to her as she has done to others; pay her back double for what she has done; mix her a double portion in her own cup. As much as she has glorified herself and lived in luxury, give her the same measure of torment and grief. In her heart she says, ‘I sit as queen; I am not a widow and will never see grief.’”Calls for repayment matching Babylon's own deeds, directly answering her boast of permanent security.
- Jeremiah 50:29 (BSB)“Summon the archers against Babylon, all who string the bow. Encamp all around her; let no one escape. Repay her according to her deeds; do to her as she has done. For she has defied the LORD, the Holy One of Israel.”An earlier prophecy calling for this same principle of matching repayment against the historical Babylon.
- Isaiah 47:7-8 (BSB)“You said, ‘I will be queen forever.’ You did not take these things to heart or consider their outcome. So now hear this, O lover of luxury who sits securely, who says to herself, ‘I am, and there is none besides me. I will never be a widow or know the loss of children.’”Records the identical proud boast of permanent security, made by the historical Babylon before her own downfall.
Theological
Revelation 18:7 records Babylon's boast of permanent security using language virtually identical to Isaiah 47:7-8's earlier oracle against historical Babylon's own proud self-assurance. What theological lesson does this pattern of misplaced confidence, repeated across Scripture, teach?
Answer: That self-assured security built on wealth and status rather than on God is precarious and repeatedly proves unable to prevent the downfall Scripture consistently warns follows such pride
The near-identical boast recorded in both Isaiah's oracle against historical Babylon and this later vision, confident claims of permanent, unshakeable security, is a deliberate and recurring pattern rather than a coincidence (18:7; compare Isaiah 47:7-8). Scripture consistently exposes this kind of self-assured confidence, grounded in wealth, status, or apparent invulnerability rather than in God, as precarious rather than secure. Jeremiah 50:29's call for repayment matching historical Babylon's own deeds confirms that this pattern of proud self-security followed swiftly by real judgment has already played out once in biblical history, offering a sober warning that reappears now in this final vision: whatever power boasts of permanent, self-sufficient security apart from God stands especially exposed to the very downfall it denies is possible.
- Revelation 18:6-7 (BSB)“Give back to her as she has done to others; pay her back double for what she has done; mix her a double portion in her own cup. As much as she has glorified herself and lived in luxury, give her the same measure of torment and grief. In her heart she says, ‘I sit as queen; I am not a widow and will never see grief.’”Calls for repayment matching Babylon's own deeds, directly answering her boast of permanent security.
- Jeremiah 50:29 (BSB)“Summon the archers against Babylon, all who string the bow. Encamp all around her; let no one escape. Repay her according to her deeds; do to her as she has done. For she has defied the LORD, the Holy One of Israel.”An earlier prophecy calling for this same principle of matching repayment against the historical Babylon.
- Isaiah 47:7-8 (BSB)“You said, ‘I will be queen forever.’ You did not take these things to heart or consider their outcome. So now hear this, O lover of luxury who sits securely, who says to herself, ‘I am, and there is none besides me. I will never be a widow or know the loss of children.’”Records the identical proud boast of permanent security, made by the historical Babylon before her own downfall.
General
According to Revelation 18:20, who is called to rejoice over Babylon's fall, and why?
Answer: Heaven, along with the saints, apostles, and prophets, are called to rejoice, because God has pronounced judgment for them against her
In sharp contrast to the mourning voices of kings, merchants, and sailors that fill the surrounding verses, a very different call now goes out: rejoice, addressed to heaven itself, and to the saints, apostles, and prophets specifically (18:20a). The reason given is direct: God has pronounced judgment on their behalf against her (18:20b). What reads as devastating loss to those who had profited from Babylon's corruption is presented here as long-awaited vindication for God's own people, who had suffered under her influence.
- Revelation 18:20 (BSB)“Rejoice over her, O heaven, and you saints and apostles and prophets, because God has pronounced for you His judgment against her.”Calls heaven and God's people to rejoice, since this judgment vindicates them.
- Deuteronomy 32:43 (BSB)“Rejoice, O heavens, with Him, and let all God’s angels worship Him. Rejoice, O nations, with His people; for He will avenge the blood of His children. He will take vengeance on His adversaries and repay those who hate Him; He will cleanse His land and His people.”An earlier call for heaven to rejoice over God's vengeance for His people, the same kind of vindication celebrated here.
- Revelation 19:1-2 (BSB)“After this I heard a sound like the roar of a great multitude in heaven, shouting: “Hallelujah! Salvation and glory and power belong to our God! For His judgments are true and just. He has judged the great prostitute who corrupted the earth with her immorality. He has avenged the blood of His servants that was poured out by her hand.””Records heaven's actual response of rejoicing over exactly this judgment, fulfilling the call given here.
Theological
Revelation 18:20 calls heaven and God's people to rejoice at the very judgment that provokes weeping among the kings, merchants, and sailors. What does this stark contrast in reactions reveal about how the same event can be experienced so differently?
Answer: The same act of God's justice is experienced as devastating loss by those whose gain depended on corruption, and as vindicating relief by those who suffered under it
This chapter deliberately places two opposite reactions to the very same event side by side: weeping from those whose wealth and pleasure depended on Babylon's corruption, and rejoicing from heaven and God's own people, whose suffering under that same corruption is now vindicated (18:9-19, 20). Deuteronomy 32:43's earlier call for heaven to rejoice over God avenging His people establishes this same pattern well before Revelation, and Revelation 19:1-2 shows heaven actually fulfilling this call, celebrating this specific judgment as a demonstration of God's true and just character. This contrast illustrates a consistent biblical principle: the same act of God's justice can rightly be received in entirely opposite ways depending on one's relationship to the sin being judged, sorrow for those invested in what falls, and grateful praise for those it finally sets right.
- Revelation 18:20 (BSB)“Rejoice over her, O heaven, and you saints and apostles and prophets, because God has pronounced for you His judgment against her.”Calls heaven and God's people to rejoice, since this judgment vindicates them.
- Deuteronomy 32:43 (BSB)“Rejoice, O heavens, with Him, and let all God’s angels worship Him. Rejoice, O nations, with His people; for He will avenge the blood of His children. He will take vengeance on His adversaries and repay those who hate Him; He will cleanse His land and His people.”An earlier call for heaven to rejoice over God's vengeance for His people, the same kind of vindication celebrated here.
- Revelation 19:1-2 (BSB)“After this I heard a sound like the roar of a great multitude in heaven, shouting: “Hallelujah! Salvation and glory and power belong to our God! For His judgments are true and just. He has judged the great prostitute who corrupted the earth with her immorality. He has avenged the blood of His servants that was poured out by her hand.””Records heaven's actual response of rejoicing over exactly this judgment, fulfilling the call given here.
General
According to Revelation 18:17-19, how do shipmasters, sailors, and others who work the sea respond to Babylon's destruction?
Answer: Keeping their distance, they cry out upon seeing the rising smoke, cover their heads with dust, and lament that so great a city fell within a single hour
A third group now joins the lament: every shipmaster, passenger, sailor, and everyone who earns a living from the sea, keeping their distance while crying out upon seeing the smoke rise from Babylon's destruction (18:17b-18). Their grief takes on a physical, visible form, throwing dust on their heads, an ancient gesture of deep mourning, while repeating the same lament already heard from the kings and merchants, astonishment that a city of such scale could be destroyed within a single hour (18:19). This third wave of lament confirms just how far Babylon's economic reach had extended, touching every level of trade, from the wealthy merchants down to the ordinary sailors who transported their goods.
- Revelation 18:17-19 (BSB)“Every shipmaster, passenger, and sailor, and all who make their living from the sea, will stand at a distance and cry out at the sight of the smoke rising from the fire that consumes her. “What city was ever like this great city?” they will exclaim. Then they will throw dust on their heads as they weep and mourn and cry out: “Woe, woe to the great city, where all who had ships on the sea were enriched by her wealth! For in a single hour she has been destroyed.””Describes seafarers mourning Babylon's destruction with the ancient gesture of throwing dust on their heads.
- Ezekiel 27:29-30 (BSB)“All who handle the oars will abandon their ships. The sailors and all the captains of the sea will stand on the shore. They will raise their voices for you and cry out bitterly. They will throw dust on their heads and roll in ashes.”Describes an earlier, nearly identical scene of sailors mourning another great trading city's collapse, including the same gesture of dust on the head.
- Isaiah 23:14 (BSB)“Wail, O ships of Tarshish, for your harbor has been destroyed!”Calls on another ancient trading fleet to mourn the destruction of the harbor city they had depended on.
Theological
Revelation 18:17-19's description of seafarers mourning Babylon closely parallels Ezekiel 27:29-30's earlier lament over another fallen trading city, down to the identical gesture of throwing dust on the head. What is significant about this vision drawing so directly on an earlier biblical lament genre?
Answer: It situates Babylon's fall within a recognizable, recurring biblical pattern of God's judgment on great trading powers built on excess and pride, rather than presenting an unprecedented new kind of judgment
The close parallel between this scene and Ezekiel's earlier lament over another great trading city, down to identical details like sailors standing at a distance and throwing dust on their heads, is a deliberate literary choice rather than mere coincidence (18:17-19; compare Ezekiel 27:29-30). By drawing so directly on this established lament pattern, the vision situates Babylon's fall within a recognizable, recurring category already familiar from Scripture: God's judgment on great trading powers whose wealth and pride had exceeded their humility before Him. Isaiah's earlier call for another trading fleet to wail over its destroyed harbor confirms this same genre appears repeatedly across the prophets. The specific historical identity of the city being judged in Revelation 18 remains a separate, disputed question from this clearer literary point: proud, excess-driven economic power has, throughout Scripture, repeatedly met the same kind of sudden, total collapse.
- Revelation 18:17-19 (BSB)“Every shipmaster, passenger, and sailor, and all who make their living from the sea, will stand at a distance and cry out at the sight of the smoke rising from the fire that consumes her. “What city was ever like this great city?” they will exclaim. Then they will throw dust on their heads as they weep and mourn and cry out: “Woe, woe to the great city, where all who had ships on the sea were enriched by her wealth! For in a single hour she has been destroyed.””Describes seafarers mourning Babylon's destruction with the ancient gesture of throwing dust on their heads.
- Ezekiel 27:29-30 (BSB)“All who handle the oars will abandon their ships. The sailors and all the captains of the sea will stand on the shore. They will raise their voices for you and cry out bitterly. They will throw dust on their heads and roll in ashes.”Describes an earlier, nearly identical scene of sailors mourning another great trading city's collapse, including the same gesture of dust on the head.
- Isaiah 23:14 (BSB)“Wail, O ships of Tarshish, for your harbor has been destroyed!”Calls on another ancient trading fleet to mourn the destruction of the harbor city they had depended on.